Cosmic structures and vortex model

 

 

Can the formation of the structures in the universe be understood as phenomena related to the vortices in gas and dust clouds and swirling electron plasma?

In this chapter I shall compare the morphological features of cosmic structures at different scales with the structures seen in vortices in the atmosphere, and ocean around us, as well as with the plasma studied in the sun and the laboratories on Earth. After this qualitative study of the vortex-like features of the cosmic structures, I shall discuss how the experimental observations of the recession of galaxies, the velocity profiles in galaxies, and clusters and the cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR) can be explained on the basis of the vortex model. The explanations of the observations of the cooling flows in clusters, supergalactic streaming, and the ejections seen from the galaxies will be given as resulting from the dynamics of the vortices churning magnetized material. Magnetic fields in the cosmic structures and magneto-hydrodynamic turbulences seen in the cosmos will also be the subjects of discussion. In this model the ejections of jets and emissions of x-rays from the centres of galaxies can be understood without invoking black-holes.

The morphologies of the cosmic structures undergo evolutions. When the seeds of the structures form they have irregular shapes, which evolve into a structure with two spiralling arms flung away from each other. As these structures evolve the spiral arms get more and more tightly packed around the core, and whirlpool-looking shapes develop. When the spiral arms get even tighter the arms gradually disappear and the whole structure gets compressed inside a core, which possesses an elliptical shape. At the end the elliptical shape contains a spherical structure like our sun at its center. This is how the cosmic structures form and evolve before they start to decay.

The evolution follows the path where the structures, as they grow, embed the same fractal pattern in descending scales. The pattern seen in the cosmic objects and the turbulences in the atmosphere appear to be the same. It indicates that the mechanisms of formation of the cosmic structures follow similar dynamics as the vortices in the atmosphere. As the vortices coil inward they sustain the dynamics by developing two opposing structures, which appear as Yin and Yang. By developing the dual arms the vortices recirculate the outgoing flows as the incoming one. Moreover with the strengthening of the structures, the dual envelopes reappear in scales after scales as smaller and smaller structures embedded in the womb of the larger ones. As the structures evolve towards spherical shapes the dual envelops entangle each other and form ring-like forms. They look more like doughnuts inside doughnuts circumscribing a hole at the centre.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

When one studies the evolution of the morphologies of the galaxies, they seem to bear the same geometric elements appearing in scales after scales, just the way the geometric elements in the vortices in the atmosphere do. The structures in the cosmos and their interactions are so similar to the phenomena of turbulence, that it should be possible to predict the motions of the stars in the galaxies of any particular morphology, or the streaming of galaxies in a cluster, or a supercluster by simple observations of the geometric character of the cosmic structures. This is possible because, as I have discussed in the previous chapter, every such geometric element involved in turbulence acts like the network of destined motions, which all objects in the universe must obey. By knowing how the turbulences work in nature, it should be possible to predict the evolution and fate of the structures by looking at the state of order or disorder in the system, defined by the geometry. One should be able describe this order, and disorder by the singularity strengths of the filaments and knots, which form the network at a particular stage of evolution.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The geometric arrangements of filaments forming the network, which universally appears in different media, defines the map of the roads through which the incoming and outgoing streams pass. In spite of the fact that the network of paths determine the ways the streams must move and arrange themselves, while passing through the vortex, the individual destinies of the particles, passing through different roads, remain indeterminable. The geometry assigns the general directions to the average flows in the system, and decides the nature of the velocity field of the average flow. The reason for the uncertainty of the motions of the individual particles lies in the fact that once a stream, made of a cluster of filamentary structures, enters a local region as an incoming flow, the clusters of filaments face the choice to move through a complex pattern of paths. This complexity of the local map, appearing on the way, is similar to the complexity which exists in the global scale. In the local map, too, the geometry of the global system is repeated. In the same way as the global network decides the destinies of the average global flows, the local map decides the destinies of the average motions through the local region. Although the average directions of the streams are determined in the local space, the individual filaments forming the cluster which enters the local region, do not know by which paths they must move. Every filament is made of smaller filaments, which in turn are made of even smaller filaments, and so on. They move by splitting and joining. Which individual filaments will split and join motions in different directions remain unpredictable. In that sense, though the movements of the individual particles are indeterminable, the destiny of the average motions of the streams at every scales are predictable by studying the geometry of the paths, which the fractal network has laid on their ways. I have explained this determinism versus indeterminism in more details earlier.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The pattern of velocity field, which develops in turbulence, shows some fluctuations of directions, which are correlated with the growth and evolution of the structure. This is caused by the oscillations resulting from the tightening and opening of the knots.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

While knowing the correlations between the velocity field and the evolution of the vortices the fluctuations seen in turbulence can be understood from the geometry of the structure alone.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The centres of the galaxies of different morphologies, like spiral and elliptical galaxies, are found to contain mini-spiral structures. The same exist in the cores of the vortices of elliptical, or spiral shapes. The belief that all structures in the universe have formed due to the gravitational collapse of the gases have led to the model that there should exist black-holes at the centres of the galaxies. The activities seen at the centres of the galaxies are accordingly interpreted from the assumption that the black-holes are causing the phenomena observed at the centre. It may not be the case. Deeper and deeper one explores into the centres of galaxies one finds that they bear close similarities with what one observes in the case of the vortices. Instead of black-holes one discovers interacting double spiral structures, which embeds similar double spiral structures in its core, which in turn embeds even smaller double spiral structures and so on. It is very similar to what I have shown in the case of the nucleus of our own Milky Way galaxy.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Inside the very heart of the structure two spirals intertwine together to form a knot with several mouths from which ejections occur from inside to outside. The nature of the knots describe the stages of evolution of the vortices, or the galaxies.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

As I have discussed earlier, the collapse of the knots inside the centres may cause the ejections of high-velocity structures, which will emerge from the centre. The ejections of structures from the vortices are common phenomena in the atmosphere. While the structures, looking like evolved spiral galaxies, wind up their arms and tend to take the shape of the elliptical ones, one can observe ejections of structures in specific directions. In all vortices the ejections occur from the same parts of the arms when they spiral inward. This occurs from shells, after shells which are embedded within each other in a hierarchical manner. The bigger structures break out from the outer shells, while smaller and smaller structures are ejected from the shells which lie closer to the centre. The ejections occurring in the atmospheric vortices and the galaxies bear similarities.

 

All ejections appear from the ejection mouths which develop in every descending scales. In the chapter dealing with the distribution and structures of the galaxies I have described the bow-shaped structures containing outpouring mouths.

Thus the kinematics of the galaxies are much more complex than simple rotation of the arms around a center. They are not differential rotations in one direction. The rotational behavior is coupled with spiral movement towards the centre, as well as they are intricately linked with the ejections from inside. The paths of inflow and outflow are non-rotational and they are complexly intertwined with the overall rotating structure. The motions in the very center is even more complex. There the motions follow knot structures. These knots are, in fact, fractal knots, which means the knots at a particular scale embed a similar knot in its centre in the next descending scale. The central knot works as a structure with several outpouring mouths. The ejected streams from these mouths join the inflowing streams which then spiral towards the centre and give rise to the complex forms.

The knot formation inside the vortex eye follows the formation of the eye-walls, within which the space remains more empty. As the vortex intensifies, meso-vortices develop in this empty region. When three such meso-vortices appear inside the eye of the vortex they create the shape of a three-armed spiral at the centre. In the centre of such a spiral, one can discover a similar spiral of smaller size. In the heart of that smaller spiral one may find an even smaller spiral structure again.

 

This will continue until the formation of a 3D knot structure, which is so tightly bound that no more tightening can be done. At such a critical point the knot will collapse and outpouring will occur from the very heart of the structure. This outpouring will then be halted by the formation of the knot once again. This knot may again break and create outpouring. This will generate a phenomenon of occasional outpouring of matter from the centre.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

I shall now discuss about the way the vortex structures may decay by ejections from the central knot, based on the observations of atmospheric vortices, and the eddies in water, and compare them with the structures seen in the cosmos.

The vortices in the atmosphere or the sea, which we observe, follow the same process of decay. It occurs primarily by the tearing of the knot which tie the two contending envelopes which form the spiral arms. These knots exist at the places where the inflowing streams, spiraling towards the centre, and the outflowing streams moving away from the centre meet. The incoming flow feeds the similar envelop in the next descending scale, whereas the outflowing stream joins the envelop in the next ascending scale. After the connecting ties are disrupted, the two envelops expand on both sides, while jets blow through the open mouths which are torn apart. This is very similar to the mechanism of decay seen in the cosmic structures, which I have discussed in Chapter 5.

The illustrations, which I have shown in the next page describing the vortex decay are based on the situations where the vortices loose their external energy supply, and dissipative forces drive the decay process. In situations where the external energy supplies are maintained, the vortices act like pulsating systems fluctuating between open and closed knot-states. As closed knots they accumulate energy from outside and become more and more organized while forming tighter shapes. After a critical point is reached the knot breaks open by ejecting flows from the centre. The knot with open mouth, pouring out streams, will soon close again, and tighten once more before breaking down again. Thus it will oscillate, and periodically eject streams from the centre.

 

 

 

One can observe the ejections of structures from the centres of galaxies and the centres of the clusters of galaxies when the central knot starts breaking down. In this chapter I shall give examples of the famous seyfert galaxy Ngc 1068 and the activities at the center of the Perseus cluster. Many quasars are seen to be ejected from the center of the Ngc 1068. The situations inside the centre of the Perseus cluster appear to be equally dramatic. The galaxy at the centre of the Perseus cluster is known as Ngc 1275, or Perseus A. This central region is well studied in x-rays too. In the framework of the big-bang cosmology, it is believed that the activities at the centres of Ngc 1068 and the centre of Perseus A are driven by the presence of massive black-holes. The activities in the centre are mostly explosive ejections causing emissions of high-energy x-rays.

In the next pictures I shall show that the ejections and the emissions of x-rays can easily be understood as the universal activities seen in the centres of vortices, as the breakdown of the central knots when the vortex starts to decay. The x-ray emissions are intense where vortices are high, or the streams from different directions collide with each other and heat up the gas clouds and dusts.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The dynamics giving rise to the activities at the centre of galaxies, clusters and superclusters and so on all have the same universal origin in the spirals, which brings forth the knots. The knot tightening, which result into breakup of the knots, causes outpouring from the centres, which are followed by the decays of the structures. All these happen because the Cosmic Design plays a central role in building the universe. It is the embodiment of perfection. The universe, at all scales, seeks to achieve this perfection. In seeking this order it brings its decay, which causes the disruption of the design. The disruption makes the universe more disorderly. The universe reacts back to the disorder and brings back the order once again. Thus the structures in the universe, grow, decay and grow again and again.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

I have talked about the cosmic design, the spirals and the knots. The readers may feel confused and ask how all these aspects belong to the same process? In a remarkable way the structures in the universe go through all these phases. As I have said, the cosmic design organizes the structures in all scales in a orderly manner, which means that self-similar design develops in the womb of each other while the orderly arrangement sets in. It ends by creating a series of concentric rings at the heart, which in the case of the vortices appear as the vortex eyes. Within these rings a spiral structure forms, which one sees in the hearts of many elliptical galaxies. In the centre, from where the spiral arms protrude, once more the cosmic design reappears, which contains even tinnier rings in its deep depth. Within that tinny doughnut shaped structure again the spiral appears at its centre. This process of building the structures continues deeper and deeper within the core, in hierarchically descending scales. As one plunges deeper towards the centre, one can see ejections of smaller and smaller structures made of denser and denser material. Thus the centers of the cosmic structures appear as factories of creation of structures which are then blown out from the core.

In the illustrations shown, I have explained the way these outblowing of structures occur. The 3D spiral, which forms the central knot, develops into a structure with outpouring mouths, which lie in the opposite directions. Through these mouths most of the violent ejections occur from the centre.

 

One observes these outpourings from the centres, which have evolved ring-like shapes, like the elliptical galaxies, quasars and the centres of compact galaxy clusters. The radio jets observed from such structures appear from the outpouring mouths of the 3D knots. These radio jets and the ejections are conventionally interpreted as being caused by the explosions generated by the activities of black-holes. I have demonstrated what cause the jets and the ejections without invoking the idea of black-holes. The x-ray emissions and the radio-jets can be understood from the point of view of the activities of the vortex core, where strength of the magnetic field is high.

The faith in the big-bang model, based on the solutions of the equations of the General Theory of Relativity, increased with the observation of the recession of the galaxies. Measurements showed that the galaxies around us were all receding from us. Soon this recession of the galaxies were interpreted as being caused by an expanding universe, which the theory predicted.

So, if the big-bang cosmology is not the cause, "what is the origin of the recessions of galaxies around us?" I have shown that around the centres of cosmic structures, most motions appear, as if they are caused by explosions. I have illustrated this both for the centres of galaxies, and the clusters of galaxies. With the knowledge that the universe follows a universal way of building cosmic structures at different scales, it is reasonable to believe that this process does not stop at the scale where we observe the universe. With it the same dynamics also remains active at the central part of the universe, where we happen to find ourselves.

 

The motions of the galaxies, clusters and superclusters do not fit into the simple scenario of the Hubble flow. Some clusters and superclusters have been observed to move in peculiar directions deviating from the paths one should expect in an expanding sphere. The Local cluster of galaxies, to which the Milky Way belongs, is moving towards the centre of the Virgo Supercluster. The Virgo supercluster itself is streaming in the direction of Hydra and Centaurus supercluster. It resembles a phenomenon which can be explained by the model of gravity if one assumes an unseen great mass is pulling the supercluster towards it. This unseen mass is called the "Great Attractor". It is believed that such attractions will be slowing down the expansion of the universe. As I have shown, there is no necessity of invoking such "Great Attractor". The motions of galaxies, clusters and superclusters can be explained from the dynamics of the vortex.

The belief in the gravitational theory, and the idea that the cosmic structures have formed as the results of the gravitational collapse of the clouds, have achieved such an acceptance in the scientific community that very few dare to doubt its truthfullness. However, the observed motions of the cosmic objects do not follow the paths one expects. The motions of the stars and the gases in the galaxies, or the motions of the galaxies in the clusters, or the motions of the clusters in the superclusters do not follow the gravitational model. In contradiction to the theory the rotational velocities of the bodies increase with the distance from the centre. If the motions were caused by the gravitational attractions they should indeed decrease. In many galaxies the rotational velocities are seen to flatten out after increasing from the centre. This has led the scientists to believe that there must exist hidden dark, matter haloes, which envelop the galaxies causing the peculiar motions. Likewise the motions of galaxies in clusters, or the clusters in superclusters can not be explained without the assumption that the most of the matter in the universe should be hiding as dark mystery.

The idea of the existence of dark matter has injected immense enthusiasm in the modern astrophysics and astronomy. There has been an inflation of observations and explanations regarding the dark matter during the last few decades. The enthusiasm is driven to the point that it will be hard to find daring souls who will doubt its existence. The fate of the expanding big-bang universe is dependent on the nature and the amount of dark matter present in the universe. Whether the universe will expand forever, or will contract one day depend on the amount of the dark-matter. When, and how the cosmic structures will take place also depend on the type and the amount of such hidden matter. And here, the modern cosmology, based on the big-bang model, has got stuck. Until now there has been no satisfactory answer how the structures in the universe have to be created from the hydrogen clouds, that once came into existence in the recombination era after the primordial explosion.

 

The rotational curves seen in the cosmic structures seem to follow the same pattern as observed in the vortex structures. They rise from the centre, then flatten, or decay, after the core of the vortex is crossed. The velocity curves depend on the evolutionary stages of the vortices. More the vorticities are spread from the centre, more the rotational velocity becomes flatter after crossing the boundary which define the core. This is exactly what one observes in galaxies. The velocity curves follow the nature of the vorticity structure. Similarly, the peculiar velocities, which one observes in the clusters and the streaming motions of the superclusters towards different "attractors" in the nearby universe, can be explained by the dynamical motions occurring in the vortex cores.

The other main question to be answered is the question of the Cosmic Blackbody Radiation (CMBR). The discovery of the CMBR in 1965 brought a quantum leap in the modern cosmology. With it the faith in the big-bang cosmology increased and the evidence in support of the theoretical model was considered irrefutable. The big-bang theorists explained the CMBR as the relic of the hot ball of radiation, which rose at the beginning of time. With the expansion of the universe this primordial fireball cooled and after undergoing expansion for many billions of years it has now turned as cold as the emission coming from a blackbody at 3 degree Kelvin. First it was thought that the radiation was the same in whatever directions one observed it (means isotropic). Soon it was found that the radiation possesses a dipolar anisotropy. This anisotropy could be explained as resulting from the motion of the Milky Way through the background space. It was moving in the direction of Virgo and Hydra-Centaurus supercluster. In that direction the radiation got blue shifted and in the opposite direction it was redshifted (known Doppler shift). After subtracting the dipolar anisotropy, resulting from the motion of our galaxy, it was found that there were some fluctuations left in the CMBR.

The big-bang theorists had been looking for such a fluctuation in the CMBR. It helped them to explain the way the cosmic structures have appeared from an initially homogeneous and isotropic state. Without the presence of fluctuations at the time of the primordial explosion it won't be possible to explain the creation of the clumpy structures like galaxies, clusters, and superclusters. In the big-bang model, an initial tiny fluctuations in the radiation ball in the homogeneous and isotropic universe at the beginning of time had grown bigger and bigger with the passage of time as the universe had become larger and larger. The fluctuations had caused the break up of the original homogeneous large cloud into clumpy structures. The CMBR was expected to carry the signature of the primordial fluctuations and be correlated to the clumpiness seen in the cosmic arena.

In pursuit of testing the idea of the primordial fluctuations in the large scale universe more detailed and refined observations have been made recently. The observations during the last three years have brought many surprises. The results are not what one had been expecting. Instead of an isotropic universe, on which the foundations of the modern cosmology is based, the measurements indicate anisotropy. There exists a preferred direction in the sky along which the CMBR fluctuations are strongest. Moreover there exists many puzzling features in the data, which can not be explained from the point of view of the theories, which one has constructed during the last century. Among others, the CMBR fluctuations, instead of being of primordial origin, seem to be tightly correlated with the local structures in the nearby universe. No one seems to know how to digest these observational facts which strike blows to the model, which the big-bang theorists have painstakingly built for nearly a century.

This crucial blow has come from the observational attempt to confirm the model of structure formation in the universe with the help of the big-bang theory. About forty years ago the detection of the CMBR heralded the jubilation of triumph. Now it seems that the anisotropies observed in CMBR fluctuations have brought its death throe.

The surprises started when Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) began to bring to light some unexpected data since 2003. The biggest surprise was the temperature anisotropy in the largest angular scale in the sky, which meant that the fluctuations were not coming from the large scale. Moreover there existed a clear anisotropy between the southern and the northern hemisphere in the sky. The contributions from the large angular span of the sky are known as dipole, quadrupole and octopole contributions. As I have said before, the dipole contribution is interpreted as resulting from the motions of Milky way galaxy through the space filled with Microwave radiation. The quadropole and ocotopole contributions are not only very low, but they are planar and highly correlated with each other. According to the big-bang theory the fluctuations originating at a time before the first stars were born should be highly isotropic and one should be able to observe in this isotropic fluctuations the codes which have generated the observed clumpiness of structures. Instead of showing such an isotropy the fluctuations indicate a preferred axis in the direction of motion towards Virgo and Hydra-Centaurus supercluster (the so-called Great Attractor) and give indications that they might arise from the local superclusters existing in the nearby universe.

The defenders of the big-bang theory still argue that the anisotropy seen could be due to errors in the data, or some foreground effects caused by our Milky Way galaxy, which one has not been able to eliminate completely. However, the alignment of the quadrupole and the octopole correlations and their low values unmistakably point towards a great flaw in the big-bang theory.

In fact, the quadropole contributions have a clear association with the local superclusters in the nearby universe. The warmer spots trace the distribution of the high-velocity clouds, which have been observed near our galaxy. The colder spots have very clear association with the local superclusters like Shapely, Hydra and Centaurus, Coma, and Perseus-Pisce and the "Great Attractor". The coldest spots have clear association with the "Great Attractor". Thus the anisotropy seen in the WMAP data seem to be dominated by the structures in the local universe.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

However, the question remains: What causes the emission of the microwave radiation at 2.7 K in the superclusters?

The clear spatial correspondence between the colder spots and the superclusters indicate that the microwave radiation must be coming from the local structures around us. Dark cold matter is believed to comprise most of the Inter Cluster Matter (ICM) in the universe. The ICM has been observed to be made of multi-phase components including the hot ionized gases radiating x-rays and cold and very dense molecular gas, which is not penetrated and heated up by the x-ray component. Cold molecular gas have already been observed in several clusters.

In the big-bang theory, these cold molecular gases have been seen as the most promising candidates for the so-called missing dark matter. In the haloes of galaxies and clusters they are believed to exist in thermal equilibrium with the CMBR temperature. In fact, the so-called microwave background could be nothing but the radiation from the cold molecular gases at 2.73 K, which dominates the amount of matter in the nearby universe. May be, there exists no such thing as the Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation as proposed by the big-bang model.

The cold molecular gas, emitting the radiation, could be the molecular hydrogen, which is the coldest component of all the dominating gases in the universe. The neutral hydrogen is warmer, and the ionized hydrogen is hot. What causes the molecular hydrogen to emit the radiation at this temperature?

In environments where cold dust grains exist, like in the ICM, gas-phase molecular hydrogen may freeze out onto the dust grains, and H2 -snow may grow at the nucleation site. These H2 -containing ices could be very common in the dense molecular clouds. There is a critical temperature below which the H2 molecules can stick to H2 ice surface formed on the top of the dust grain. For the number of molecules in the cloud around 109 cm-3 the critical temperature for snowflakes to develop turns out to be close to the CMBR temperature. The molecular gas densities in the ICM could be favorable for creating the H2 ice at the microwave radiation temperature which one observes in the sky. These H2 ice can absorb or radiate as blackbody. So there is no need for a big-bang model to explain the CMBR temperature.

Another issue which has challenged the big-bang cosmology for the last few years is the observed discrepancies of distances measured by using two different methods. The usual method in the big-bang theory is to calculate the distance of a cosmic object from the redshift value. The higher the redshift the father away should be the object. Lately another method to determine the distances of galaxies have been proposed. It is done by using a particular type of supernova, called Type I, as the standard candle. The Type I supernova are believed to have similar maximum brightness wherever they may occur. Therefore, by observing these supernova occurring in a galaxy one can find out the distance of the galaxy. These two distance measurements are not in agreement with each other. The supernova occurring in galaxies with higher redshifts turn out to be closer than supernova occurring at lower redshifts. Only way to understand this discrepancy without abandoning the big-bang theory is to hypothesize that the universe is accelerating rather than slowing down. This has caused a new wave of speculations about an accelerating universe. However such acceleration can only be caused by a repulsive force. It has been proposed that there must exist not only dark matter but also dark energy in the universe which is causing this repulsive force. The most mass is assumed to be lie as dark energy. So the universe has become a fertile ground for scientists to speculate over the dark energy, the dark matter and the black-holes, none of which can be seen or detected. On such ground the big-bang theorists claim the validity of the standard cosmology.

The big-bang model has been implanted in the scientific community with such dogmatic faith that even if the theory is sinking in a deep state of coma, the supporters coming from the biggest and the most powerful scientific institutions, still claim that it is a living incarnation of an irrefutable truth.

How can one understand the high-redshift supernova to lie closer in the framework of the vortex theory? If the entire universe is a vortex, like our own Milky Way galaxy, with high vorticity inside its core, the velocities of the cosmic objects far away from the core will go down and therefore the distant cosmic objects will show slower motions, which means, lower redshifts. Only in the region beginning in the centre to the core wall, the velocity will increase with the increasing distance, like in the Hubble law.

By now, I have gone through the major observational issues, on which the foundations of the big-bang theory have been erected, and with it I have also indicated the defects of the standard theory. I have also shown how the vortex model may explain most of the observational findings in a consistent manner without introducing dark matter, dark energy, or black-holes.

The readers may have already noted that in this new vortex-cosmology model the so-called gravitational force does not play an important role. In the next chapter I shall discuss in more details how turbulence and magnetic fields dominate over gravity in forming the structures in the universe.